Issue #9: November 22, 2024

Join our passionate guide, Samina Hoshyar, to explore
Public Health After COVID-19: Where Do We Go From Here?

What’s Inside This Issue?

  1. Concepts and Terminology: Discover concepts and terminology introduced in the featured article.
  2. Featured Article: Join Samina as she explores COVID’s impact on public health and its challenges and lessons.
  3. About the Author: Read about Samina’s journey as she pursues a career in public health and how she met Paul Jr.
  4. Hands-On Activities:  Dive into activities tracking a simulated outbreak and building healthy meals.
  5. Environmental Equity and Sustainability: Learn how public health shapes environmental equity and sustainability for healthier communities.
  6. Setting the Stage for Your Future: A Public Health Path: Explore public health careers, college programs, and prep with high school courses.
  7. Glossary: Recap key concepts and terminology from the featured article.

1. Concepts and Terminology

  1. Public Health: The science of keeping communities healthy by preventing illness and promoting healthy behaviors, focusing on the health of populations rather than individual treatment.
  2. Infectious Disease Control: Public health strategies focused on preventing, controlling, and treating infectious diseases in populations, highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic.
  3. Pandemic: A pandemic is a global outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads rapidly, affecting a large number of people across multiple countries or continents. It is marked by sustained human-to-human transmission, leading to widespread illness and significant disruptions to society and healthcare systems. Notable examples include the 1918 influenza pandemic and the COVID-19 pandemic.
  4. Social Determinants of Health: The conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age that affect their health outcomes. These factors influence a wide range of health, functioning, and quality-of-life outcomes, and they can contribute to health disparities or inequalities among different populations.

2. Featured Article

Public Health After COVID-19: Where Do We Go From Here?
By Samina Hoshyar

Introduction

Every morning, you hit the snooze button a few too many times, rush to class, and power through the day. But did you ever stop to think about what’s really shaping your health?

Let’s talk about Tara. She shares a room with her siblings, catches the bus, and lacks home internet. She’s got asthma from living near a highway, but no health insurance. Now, compare her to Arjun, who has his own room, a laptop, family healthcare, and even drives himself to school.

These discrepancies are what we call the Social Determinants of Health — the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age that affect their health outcomes. They include factors such as socioeconomic status, education, neighborhood environment, and access to healthcare, which collectively influence individual and community health.1

Understanding these determinants is key to understanding the field of Public Health, the science of protecting and improving the health of people and their communities through promoting healthy lifestyles, researching disease and injury prevention, and controlling infectious diseases.2

Image Credits: News Medical: “What is Public Health, and Why is it Important?”

Public Health Breakdown

Now that we have some insight into how public health relates to daily life we can delve deeper into its many approaches. The various branches of this science cover many subjects that make up a transdisciplinary arena often referred to as the Public Health Umbrella. 

Image Credit: Frontiers in Public Health [redrawn by Samina]

There are over ten essential areas of public health but we will discover the five key branches together. 

Image Credits: Teikyo University Graduate School of Public Health

  • Epidemiology
    • The study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease events in defined populations, and the application of this study to control health problems.
  • Biostatistics
    • The application of statistics to analyze public health data and inform decision-making. Data Science is a newly added program at most universities that is now paired with Public Health programs to aid in the pursuit of specialties such as biostatistics.
  • Environmental and Occupational Health
    • Environmental Health is the study of how environmental factors (chemical, biological, physical) affect human health. Occupational Health focuses on protecting and promoting the health and safety of workers, such as preventing workplace injuries and illnesses, ensuring a safe working environment, and supporting overall worker well-being.
  • Health Policy and Management
    • The study of health systems, health economics, policy development, and management practices to improve healthcare access and quality.
  • Social and Behavioral Sciences
    • Understanding how human behavior, social structures, and culture impact public health.

Another important field to discuss is Infectious Disease Control: the prevention, control, and treatment of infectious diseases in populations. This topic has become increasingly relevant in the last five years on both a global and a local scale with the rise of the COVID-19 pandemic which we will explore in a moment. Other public health focuses include Global Health, Occupational Health, Maternal and Child Health, Nutrition, and Community Health Promotion and Education, so there are lots of paths you can take if you choose to study, get a degree, and/or work in this field!

Image Credits: Pan American Health Organization: Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)

The Coronavirus Pandemic

Four years ago, the world grappled with an unprecedented public health crisis: the novel coronavirus, or SARS-CoV-2. This virus primarily attacks the respiratory system, causing symptoms like fever, cough, shortness of breath, and, in severe cases, pneumonia. While some individuals experienced mild or no symptoms, others faced life-threatening conditions, particularly those with pre-existing health issues. The virus spreads easily through respiratory droplets expelled during coughing, sneezing, or talking, with close contact, contaminated surfaces, and poor ventilation increasing transmission rates.

Originating in late 2019, COVID-19 rapidly spread globally, leading to widespread illness, death, and significant disruptions to daily life, economies, and healthcare systems. By March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared it a pandemic as countries experienced waves of infections, overwhelmed hospitals, and faced shortages of medical supplies. From January 2020 to March 2023, Johns Hopkins University recorded 103,802,702 confirmed cases in the U.S., resulting in 1,123,836 deaths.3

The global response to the pandemic involved a combination of public health measures, including lockdowns, social distancing, and vaccinations. To curb the spread of the virus, many governments imposed lockdowns, restricted large gatherings, and promoted mask-wearing. Countries like Australia implemented strict travel bans,4 while in the U.S., schools transitioned to online learning platforms like Zoom. Quarantining individuals with COVID-19 helped limit transmission,5 but isolation wasn’t a sustainable long-term solution, at least not in the U.S.

Vaccines, which stimulate the immune system to fight infections, were developed at an unprecedented pace. By late 2020, vaccines from Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, and AstraZeneca were authorized for use. Prioritization for vaccination was given to healthcare workers, individuals with underlying health conditions, essential workers, and the elderly, before expanding to the general public.

In addition to vaccines, a range of treatments were employed to manage severe COVID-19 cases. These included oxygen therapy, antiviral medications, steroids, and supportive care. In critical situations, mechanical ventilators were used to assist patients struggling to breathe independently.

How COVID Changed Public Health and Us

Thanks to widespread vaccination, the pandemic had largely subsided in terms of severity by 2023. Of course, not every single person in the world was vaccinated and that goal is probably not one that can be accomplished any time soon, but enough of the population was vaccinated that all of us were reasonably protected. This concept is called herd immunity, the indirect protection from an infectious disease that happens when enough of a population is immune either through vaccination or immunity developed through previous infection.6

Image Credit: St. Luke’s Health: “How the COVID-19 Vaccine Can Help Us Achieve Herd Immunity”

However, COVID-19 still continues to circulate, causing periodic outbreaks and its long-term effects on global health and society remain significant. The pandemic left lasting changes in how societies approach public health and global collaboration in science and medicine.

COVID brought significant and lasting changes to the field of public health in several ways, namely reshaping how health systems operate, preparing for future pandemics, and prioritizing community health. The pandemic certainly left a lasting focus on pandemic preparedness and response by exposing gaps in public health systems worldwide. This led to increased investments in pandemic preparedness such as disease surveillance strategies, rapid-response capabilities, and stocking up on essential supplies like personal protective equipment (PPE) including masks and gloves, and also ventilators. 

The coronavirus pandemic also saw innovation in terms of the rapid vaccination development that we had in 2020. The success of the COVID-19 vaccines, particularly the mRNA technology, revolutionized the approach to vaccine development and set a new standard for future vaccine production in response to emerging threats. 

Image Credit: UK Health Security Agency

Speaking of vaccines, the pandemic also highlighted the importance of mass vaccination campaigns, which became a critical public health strategy globally. Having to suddenly distribute millions of immunizations showed the immediate need for robust supply chains, global cooperation, and equitable distribution of supplies. Similarly, COVID made it clear that there needed to be improvements to the public health workforce and infrastructure. This of course requires increased funding and staffing and fortunately, we have seen more U.S. government and industry investment in public health post-pandemic so that we can be better prepared for the future.

With the population isolated to prevent further infection, technology became vital, especially in public health through telemedicine and contact tracing. The pandemic accelerated the adoption of telehealth, allowing remote consultations, which remain crucial today. Contact tracing apps, like those developed for iPhones, also played a role in tracking and reducing transmission.7 Data collection and predictive modeling became essential for tracking the virus and informing decisions. The trend of open data sharing for public health is now lasting.

The pandemic also changed our behavior. Telemedicine, telework, and online schooling continue to connect people today. Health awareness increased, and hygiene practices, like handwashing, wearing masks, and using hand sanitizer, became routine. In the U.S., mask-wearing became more common and socially acceptable, though it was less common before the pandemic. In countries like Japan and South Korea, mask-wearing has long been practiced, helping to reduce COVID transmission.

COVID also had a significant impact on mental health. The pandemic brought about a rise in anxiety, depression, and burnout due to isolation, highlighting the importance of mental health services. Public health approaches now increasingly integrate mental health as a key part of overall health. In 2023, the federal government allocated $6.6 billion to the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) to improve mental health and substance abuse services, focusing on community services, youth mental health, and the expansion of telehealth access.8

Image Credit: OECD DEVELOPMENT matters: “Mental health and COVID-19 in developing countries”

So far, we’ve touched on what public health is and what it aims to serve.  Then, we gave a specific example: the COVID-19 pandemic, and said how it changed the field of public health. That virus also taught us that preparation, adaptability, and cooperation both on a national and global scale are necessary to tackle an outbreak as extensive as the coronavirus. This need becomes even more pressing with a novel virus, as limited understanding opens the door to misinformation. When misinformation spreads on a large scale — an “infodemic”— it poses significant challenges.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an Infodemic is the widespread flood of false or misleading information, such as what happened during the COVID-19 pandemic, and Infodemiology is the study of that information and how to manage it.9

Image Credit: World Health Organization: “Let’s flatten the infodemic curve”

Authorities had to rapidly adapt to information disseminating in real time, combating misinformation, and addressing public distrust in science and health institutions. This was particularly problematic when it came to disinformation shared on social media platforms. A prominent example occurred in March 2020, when the U.S. President at the time promoted hydroxychloroquine — a malaria drug unapproved for COVID-19 treatment — in a widely shared tweet. Despite the social medium Twitter flagging the message for COVID misinformation, some members of the public still attempted to use the drug.

Image Credit: Twitter (X.com), Left, Right 

In the study “Impact of Trump’s Promotion of Unproven COVID-19 Treatments and Subsequent Internet Trends” (Niburski et al., 2020),10 the authors found a significant increase in public interest and purchases of unproven therapies following President Trump’s endorsement. They recommend that public health officials advocate for safer, evidence-based approaches and cite Twitter’s role in flagging and removing COVID-19 misinformation.

Other missteps during the pandemic affected public perception. Dr. Anthony Fauci, Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, admitted that mixed messaging about mask usage, initially intended to protect healthcare workers’ supplies, hindered effective communication. Fauci acknowledged this in a 2020 NPR interview, stating that the confusion was detrimental.11

Earlier we discussed how state and local governments implemented mask mandates to slow the spread of the virus in public spaces, schools, and places of business. As you’ve probably seen, these mandates were met with resistance from some, particularly from individuals and groups who saw them as a violation of their personal freedoms. In fact, some states either refused to enforce mask mandates or banned local governments and school boards from implementing them altogether. Instances of this were seen in Arizona, Texas, and Florida where laws were passed that banned mask mandates in schools despite rising COVID-19 cases.12

While masks themselves were not criminalized in a literal sense, certain government officials imposed penalties on local entities that tried to implement mask mandates. In 2021, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed legislation that prohibited local governments from imposing mask mandates and imposed fines on schools that required masks.13 These types of actions were taken, even though the U.S. has extensive prior experience with airborne highly-contagious diseases, such as measles. From a public health standpoint, it is important to take into consideration community wellness for different stakeholders; mask mandates were put in place to decrease the rate of infection in public spaces such as schools, but people also have the say to their personal freedoms and their parental rights. 

Image Credit: World Health Organization: “Let’s flatten the infodemic curve”

Where Do We Go From Here?

We’re four years on from the start of the pandemic, and things have mostly fallen back into place. Communities have readjusted back to life pre-COVID and cases have significantly subsided. Still, the virus continues to affect various aspects of our lives. For some, contracting the virus means dealing with Long COVID, a condition encompassing a range of health problems that “emerge, persist, or return following COVID-19 such as fatigue, cognitive issues, and respiratory problems” according to the CDC. They report that cases of long Covid fell from 7.5% in adults in 2022 to 6% in 2023.14 Other ongoing health factors impacting communities are heightened levels of anxiety, depression, and stress. Many continue to seek mental health support, urging the growing need for accessible mental health services. 

Traditional education and workplace structures also remain changed in the post-pandemic world with remote and hybrid models, for both work and school. The introduction of remote learning during the pandemic lockdown, however, led to disruption in learning and restricted social interactions, which together posed a great challenge for both students and educators. Addressing these learning and social gaps that arose during remote learning continues to be a priority even though our students and teachers have since returned to classrooms for several years now. 

The pandemic also reshaped public health research and preparedness. While vaccines were rapidly developed and deployed, ongoing efforts focus on improving treatments and adapting immunizations to emerging variants. Lessons from COVID-19 have sparked discussions about strengthening pandemic preparedness and enhancing response strategies for future health crises.

Four years later, the pandemic continues to shape public health, healthcare delivery, and societal norms, leaving a lasting impact worldwide. Moving forward, the U.S. must prioritize a holistic approach that emphasizes healthcare, mental health, infrastructure, equity, and community resilience. By learning from the challenges and successes of COVID-19, we can better prepare for future public health crises and promote well-being across all communities.

Image Credit: VectorMine/Shutterstock.comon News Medical: “What is Public Health, and Why is it Important?”

3. About the Author

  • Hello, my name is Samina and I attended the University of California, Berkeley (Cal) and graduated with a B.A. in Public Health. I also studied User Experience and User Interface Design through UC Berkeley Extension following my undergraduate studies. My future plans include getting my masters in Public Health. I am most interested in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Global Health, and Maternal and Child Health aspects of public health. 
  • I started out as a Molecular and Cell Biology student at Cal with the intention to go into the medical field but after working with free clinics and advocacy programs I soon came to realize that I was more interested in the social determinants of health and decided that Public Health was a perfect fit for me!
  • I met Paul at the Cal undergraduate orientation in the early summer of 2016. From the moment I met him I knew he was a very friendly, caring and outgoing individual. Paul had a knack for breaking people out of their shells and I feel that this was very true for me. Every time I was around Paul he was very insistent on sharing food or anything he had; he would bake banana bread amongst other recipes and share them with everyone. He was often found sitting with a book on his lap, sometimes even two or three — you could tell he was reading them out of his deep interest in learning their contents and not out of obligation. Paul coined so many phrases that I’ll never forget, including “safety first then teamwork.” Paul is missed dearly and he had a profound impact on me through his love for education and infectious energy.

4. Hands-on Activities

Image Credit: CDC: “Solve the Outbreak”

Activity 1: Infectious Disease Modeling

  • Objective: To learn about epidemiology and public health by engaging in a simulated outbreak investigation. The game aims to teach the importance of data collection and critical thinking in managing public health crises while highlighting the roles of public health professionals.
  • Materials required: Access to a device that can connect to the internet
  • Procedure: 

Activity 2: Nutrition Building

  • Objective: This exercise will help promote healthy and nutritional eating at home.
  • Materials required: Notebook, pen/pencil, ingredients in your fridge
  • Procedure: 
    • Pay attention to what you eat for dinner on any given day and select one of these meals you eat to practice nutrition building
      • Log the following information in a notebook:
        • Take a photo of your meal and label the different food groups. For example, if you eat a rice dish you can note how much rice, protein, and vegetables are on your plate. If you cannot print a photo of your meal you could alternatively draw it in your journal and mark the different components.
    • Use the “MyPlate” program provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to assess the recommended nutrition guidelines for someone of your age. Take the MyPlate Plan assessment below:
  • Work with your family to cook a meal together that follows the recommended nutrition findings you learned about from the MyPlate website:
    • Repeat the previous steps of logging your meal information into your journal with a photo or a drawing
    • Record how you felt about the two meals and compare them; what was improved? What stayed the same? Was it easy to create the meal? Were you able to use food from home or did you have to go to the grocery store for new foods/ingredients? 
    • Below is an example of a digital drawing of a dinner I ate recently after using MyPlate. I would roughly say that my plate roughly consists of 35% protein (chicken), 20% vegetables (asparagus), and 45% carbohydrates (potatoes).
  • Again, please feel free to reach out to us if you have any questions or need assistance with the activity. 

5. Environmental Equity and Sustainability

Contextual Relevance:

Public health is closely tied to environmental equity and sustainability, as community health is influenced by its environment. Everyone, regardless of socioeconomic status, race, or location, should have equal access to clean air, water, and safe living conditions. Public health initiatives aim to address disparities, such as pollution exposure and lack of green spaces, that disproportionately affect marginalized communities. By promoting sustainable practices—like reducing waste and conserving resources—public health efforts can prevent environment-related diseases and support healthy ecosystems, ultimately improving health outcomes and community resilience.

Challenges:

  • Achieving sustainability in public health is a key goal, but there are several challenges such as limited funding, the direct threats of climate change, health inequities caused by unequal access to healthcare, and political barriers that block effective health policies that can make it difficult to accomplish. 
  • Balancing the costs of sustainability with the need for economic equity in public health requires long-term planning, investment, and policies that ensure both environmental and social factors are addressed together. Green initiatives like sustainable agriculture and pollution control are expensive upfront, but investing in sustainability has been shown to lead to long-term economic benefits. The challenge is finding ways to make these investments economically viable for all communities, ensuring that vulnerable populations who face the brunt of the environmental hazards are not left behind. 
Solutions: To address the challenges of economic viability, environmental sustainability, and equity in public health, several solutions and approaches are being used:
  • Green Infrastructure: Cities are investing in green infrastructure like urban parks, green roofs, and tree canopies to reduce pollution and improve air quality. This is a cost-effective way to address both environmental and health challenges.
  • Health Impact Assessments: Governments and organizations are using health impact assessments (HIAs) to evaluate how policies and projects affect public health, especially in vulnerable communities. This helps ensure that sustainability efforts are aligned with health equity goals. Renewable Energy and Clean
  • Technology: Shifting to renewable energy sources, like solar and wind, can reduce health risks associated with fossil fuel pollution and create new jobs. Clean technologies also contribute to long-term savings by reducing healthcare costs. Community-Led Initiatives: Local communities are leading efforts to improve both environmental and health conditions, such as community gardens, clean-up programs, and advocacy for cleaner air and water.
  • Environmental Justice Policies: Policies that address the disproportionate environmental impacts on low-income or marginalized communities help to ensure both sustainability and equity. These policies focus on reducing disparities in environmental and health outcomes.
  • Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting sustainable farming practices can reduce environmental harm like water pollution and soil degradation while also improving public health by ensuring access to healthier food options, particularly in underserved areas.
Examples:
  • One notable case study that successfully integrates equity and sustainability into public health is the Community Health and Food Security Initiative in Detroit, Michigan. This case study highlights the importance of integrating community-driven solutions, sustainable practices, and equity-focused policies in addressing public health challenges, ultimately leading to healthier, more resilient communities.
  • Read more here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9991681/

Call to Action:

We can make a difference by considering how our daily choices impact both the environment and public health. Small actions—like reducing waste, supporting clean energy, and promoting healthy lifestyles—can create big change. Get involved in your community, learn about sustainability, and advocate for policies that protect both people and the planet. Together, we can build a healthier, more sustainable future.

6. Setting the Stage for Your Future: A Public Health Path

Careers in Public Health: Public health offers a wide range of careers for individuals with a bachelor’s degree in public health, focusing on improving health and well-being for individuals and communities. Some popular roles include:

  • Community Health Worker: This role has been gaining significant recognition in recent years, especially in underserved communities. Their ability to bridge the gap between healthcare providers and community members makes them highly sought after.
  • Environmental Health Specialist: As concerns about environmental health and sustainability grow, the demand for environmental health specialists is on the rise.
  • Health Educator: Health educators are always in demand, particularly in public health agencies, schools, and healthcare organizations.
  • Health Communications Specialist: With the increasing importance of health communication in public health campaigns, the demand for health communications specialists is growing.
  • Public Health Educator: Similar to health educators, public health educators are essential in promoting health and preventing disease on a larger scale.

Undergraduate Programs in Public Health: If you’re interested in these careers, pursuing a public health degree in college is the next step. Common undergraduate programs include:

  • Bachelor of Science in Public Health: Focuses on health promotion, epidemiology, and environmental health.
  • Bachelor of Arts in Public Health: Combines public health with social sciences to address health issues from a community perspective.
  • Bachelor of Science in Health Science: Provides a broad foundation in health sciences, preparing students for various healthcare careers or advanced studies.
  • Bachelor of Arts in Health Studies:  Provides a broad, interdisciplinary education in the social, behavioral, and biological aspects of health and healthcare.

High School Courses to Prepare: To get ready for college programs in public health, focus on these key high school subjects:

  • Biology and Chemistry: Build a foundation in science to understand health and environmental issues.
  • Math: Take courses in algebra and statistics to help with data analysis and research.
  • Social Sciences: Courses like psychology, sociology, and economics help you understand the social determinants of health.
  • Health and Physical Education: Gain an understanding of wellness and health promotion.
  • English and Communication: Develop strong writing and speaking skills, which are essential for health education and policy work

References: 

  1. WHO. Social determinants of health. (2024). World Health Organization. https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-of-health%23tab%3Dtab_1&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1731975364777763&usg=AOvVaw1RWzr56XN2TDMl-mpKlrge
  2. CDC. (2019). What is Public Health? CDC Foundation. https://www.cdcfoundation.org/what-public-health
  3. Johns Hopkins University of Medicine. (2023, March 10). Coronavirus Data Tracking. Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/region/united-states
  4. Australian Government Department of Home Affairs. Inwards Travel Restrictions Operation Directive, v9 (2020). https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/foi/files/2022/fa-220600418-document-released.PDF
  5. Senser, D. J., & CDC Museum. (n.d.). Contact Tracing. CDC Public Health Academy . Retrieved October 2024, from https://www.cdc.gov/museum/pdf/cdcm-pha-stem-lesson-contact-tracing-lesson.pdf
  6. World Health Organization. (2020, December 31). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Herd immunity, Lockdowns and COVID-19. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/herd-immunity-lockdowns-and-covid-19
  7. Apple. (n.d.). Exposure Notification. Apple Developer. Retrieved October 2024, from https://developer.apple.com/exposure-notification/
  8. Resources (ASFR), A. S. for F. (2022, March 22). HHS FY 2023 Budget in Brief. HHS.gov. https://www.hhs.gov/about/budget/fy2023/index.html
  9. World Health Organization. (n.d.). Let’s flatten the infodemic curve. WHO. Retrieved October 2024, from https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve
  10. Niburski, K., & Niburski, O. (2020). Impact of Trump’s Promotion of Unproven COVID-19 Treatments and Subsequent Internet Trends: Observational Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(11). https://doi.org/10.2196/20044
  11. Breslow, J. (2020, July 1). Fauci: Mixed Messaging On Masks Set U.S. Public Health Response Back. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/07/01/886299190/it-does-not-have-to-be-100-000-cases-a-day-fauci-urges-u-s-to-follow-guidelines
  12. Lombardo, C. (2021, August 18). In Florida, Texas And Arizona, Defiant School Leaders Are Sticking With Mask Mandates. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/back-to-school-live-updates/2021/08/18/1028863120/texas-florida-arizona-mask-battles-school-leaders
  13. Fenske, T. (2021, July 30). Governor DeSantis Issues an Executive Order Ensuring Parents’ Freedom to Choose | Executive Office of the Governor. Flgov.com; Executive Office of the Governor Ron DeSantis. https://www.flgov.com/eog/news/press/2021/governor-desantis-issues-executive-order-ensuring-parents-freedom-choose
  14. Ford, N. D., Slaughter, D., Edwards, D., Dalton, A. F., Perrine, C. G., Anjel Vahratian, & Saydah, S. (2023). Long COVID and Significant Activity Limitation Among Adults, by Age — United States, June 1–13, 2022, to June 7–19, 2023. CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 72(32), 866–870. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7232a3

7. Glossary

  1. Biostatistics: The application of statistical methods and techniques to analyze data related to public health. It helps in making informed decisions and evaluating the effectiveness of health interventions.
  2. COVID-19 Pandemic: The global outbreak of illness caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, a novel coronavirus that was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. “COVID-19” stands for Coronavirus Disease 2019, marking the year the disease was first discovered.
  3. Epidemiology: A branch of public health that studies the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. It applies this knowledge to control health problems and understand the patterns of health and illness.  Note that the same root is found in the word Epidemic.
  4. Health Equity: The principle of ensuring that all individuals have fair and just access to health resources, opportunities, and services, regardless of their socioeconomic status, race, or geographic location. It aims to eliminate health disparities among different population groups.
  5. Herd Immunity:  The indirect protection from an infectious disease that happens when a population is immune either through vaccination or immunity developed through previous infection. 
  6. Infectious Disease Control: Strategies and practices aimed at preventing, controlling, and treating infectious diseases within populations. This includes surveillance, vaccination, and public health education to reduce disease spread.
  7. Infodemic: The rapid spread of misinformation and false information, particularly during health crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. This can hinder effective public health responses and lead to public distrust in health authorities.
  8. Long COVID: A term describing the persistent symptoms that some individuals experience after recovering from COVID-19. Symptoms may include fatigue, cognitive difficulties, and respiratory issues that continue for weeks or months.
  9. Pandemic Preparedness: The planning and preparation efforts undertaken to improve response strategies and mitigate the impacts of future pandemics. This involves strengthening health systems, ensuring the availability of essential supplies, and enhancing surveillance and rapid response capabilities.
  10. Pathogen:  Organism, such as a virus or bacterium, that causes a disease.
  11. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Clothing, gear, and accessories worn by individuals to protect themselves from potential hazards or risks that could cause injury or illness. PPE is commonly used in workplaces and healthcare settings, but it can also be important in other environments where health and safety risks are present.
  12. Public Health: The science and practice of protecting and improving the health of populations through organized efforts and informed choices. It focuses on preventing disease, promoting healthy behaviors, and ensuring conditions in which people can be healthy, rather than merely treating individuals once they are sick.
  13. Social Determinants of Health: The conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age that affect their health outcomes. These include factors such as socioeconomic status, education, neighborhood environment, and access to healthcare, which collectively influence individual and community health.
  14. Social Distancing:  The behavior of maintaining a minimum distance from others, such as six feet or more, to slow and minimize the spread of an infectious disease.
  15. Vaccine: A medical treatment that provides immunity to a specific infectious disease. It stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize and fight off pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms) by introducing a harmless form of the pathogen, or a piece of it, to the body.
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